This section discusses only the effects of seizures beginning in the frontal and temporal lobes on learning, as there is very little information on the effects of activity in the other lobes. Keep in mind that the amount of brain tissue affected suggests the extent of the seizures’ effects on learning. Not all people with seizures beginning in these areas will have these difficulties.

(a) Temporal lobe

i) Left temporal lobe focus

Possible difficulties:

• Verbal memory - Most studies show poor long-term memory for verbal material but average to above-average memory for visual material. Studies have shown that as many as 42 per cent of individuals with seizures beginning in this area will have difficulty with verbal memory, especially word learning.

ii) Right temporal lobe focus

Possible difficulties:

• Visual memory - This includes spatial, visuo-spatial, and nonverbal memory.
• Face recognition - As the processes that control facial recognition are primarily located in the right temporal lobe, seizures here can also impair a person’s ability to recognise and remember faces. One’s ability to recognise patterns can also be affected.
• Odour recognition and memory for nameable smells - The primary olfactory cortex, which controls our sense of smell, is located in the temporal lobe, and its functions can be disrupted should a seizure occur in this area.

iii) Both temporal lobes

Possible difficulties:

• Memory impairment - These memory impairments can have a negative impact on learning, making it difficult to progress academically and to function from day-to-day without extra care and memory strategies.
• Behavioural or Personality Disturbances - The limbic system which is intensely involved in emotion, aggression, and the fear response is located in the temporal lobe and may be affected by seizure activity.
• Fine motor skills.

(b) Frontal lobe

Possible difficulties:

• Planning and organization abilities
• Attention and concentration
• Concept formation
• Decision-Making
• Inhibition
• Anticipatory behaviour
• Formation of concepts
• Motor coordination - Motor abilities can be affected by frontal lobe seizures, and these difficulties are usually worse when seizures begin on the left side of the frontal lobe.

Single case studies have reported the following:

• Perseveration - This is the inability to switch from one line of thinking to another. Often, individuals do the same task for a long period of time because they are fixated on that step and cannot move on to the next. In particular, this behaviour leads to difficulties with step-by-step processes such as arithmetic.
  
  
• Speech production - Difficulties with speech may be due to the situation of Broca’s area in the dominant frontal lobe. Broca’s area functions to change thoughts into spoken language.